Majapahit
| Madjapahit Empire | |||||
| Karaton Mojopahit Kerajaan Majapahit |
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 Surya Majapahit[i] |
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Extent of Majapahit influence based on the Nagarakertagama; the notion of such Javanese depictions is considered conceptual.[1]
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| Capital | Majapahit, Wilwatikta (modern Trowulan) | ||||
| Languages | Old Javanese (main), Sanskrit (religious) | ||||
| Religion | Hinduism, Buddhism, Kejawen, Animism | ||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||
| Raja | |||||
| - | 1295–1309 | Kertarajasa Jayawardhana | |||
| - | 1478–1527 | Girindrawardhana | |||
| History | |||||
| - | Coronation | November 10, 1293 | |||
| - | Demak takeover | 1527 | |||
| Currency | Native gold and silver coins, Kepeng (coins imported from China and later produced locally [2]) | ||||
| Today part of |  Indonesia Malaysia Singapore Brunei Thailand East Timor Philippines |
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Majapahit was one of the last major empires of the region and is considered to be one of the greatest and most powerful empires in the history of Indonesia and Southeast Asia, one that is sometimes seen as the precedent for Indonesia's modern boundaries.[4](p19) Its influence extended beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies.[5][6]
Etymologʏ
The name Majapahit derived from local Javanese which means "bitter maja". German orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree.The name originally refer to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit, which linked to the establishment of a village in Tarik timberland by Raden Wijaya. It was said that the workers that clearing the Tarik timberland, encountered some bael trees, as they consumed the bitter-tasted fruits that subsequently become the village's name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capital's name. Majapahit (sometimes also spelled Mojopait) also known in other name; Wilwatikta, although sometimes the native refer their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead.Historiography
Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract. The main sources used by historians are: the Pararaton ('Book of Kings') written in the Kawi language and Nagarakertagama in Old Javanese.Pararaton is focused upon Ken Arok (the founder of Singhasari) but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. Nagarakertagama, is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk after which some events are covered narratively. There are also some inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese.The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C. Berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Despite Berg's approach, most scholars do not accept this view, as the historical record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the state structure show no sign of being invented.
Ming Dynasty admiral Zheng He visited Majapahit. Zheng He's translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description about Majapahit and where the king of Java lived. New findings in April 2011, indicate the Majapahit capital was much larger than previously believed after some artifacts were uncovered.
History
Formation
The statue of Harihara, the god combination of Shiva and Vishnu. It was the mortuary deified portrayal of Kertarajasa. Originally located at Candi Simping, Blitar and the statue is now preserved at the National Museum of Indonesia.
By that time, Jayakatwang, the Adipati (Duke) of Kediri, a vassal state of Singhasari, had usurped and killed Kertanagara. After being pardoned by Jayakatwang with the aid of Madura's regent, Arya Wiraraja; Raden Wijaya, Kertanegara's son-in-law, was given the land of Tarik timberland. He then opened that vast timberland and built a new village there. The village was named Majapahit, which was taken from a fruit name that had a bitter taste in that timberland (maja is the fruit name and pahit means bitter). When the Mongolian Yuan army sent by Kublai Khan arrived, Wijaya allied himself with the army to fight against Jayakatwang. Once Jayakatwang was destroyed, Raden Wijaya forced his allies to withdraw from Java by launching a surprise attack.Yuan's army had to withdraw in confusion as they were in hostile territory. It was also their last chance to catch the monsoon winds home; otherwise, they would have had to wait for another six months on a hostile island.
In 1293, Raden Wijaya founded a stronghold with the capital Majapahit. The exact date used as the birth of the Majapahit kingdom is the day of his coronation, the 15th of Kartika month in the year 1215 using the Javanese çaka calendar, which equates to November 10, 1293. During his coronation he was given formal name Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. King Kertarajasa took all four daughters of Kertanegara as his wives, his first wife and prime queen consort Tribhuwaneswari, and her sisters; Prajnaparamita, Narendraduhita, and Gayatri Rajapatni the youngest. He also took a Sumatran Malay Dharmasraya princess named Dara Petak as his wife. The new kingdom faced challenges. Some of Kertarajasa's most trusted men, including Ranggalawe, Sora, and Nambi rebelled against him, though unsuccessfully. It was suspected that the mahapati (equal with prime minister) Halayudha set the conspiracy to overthrow all of the king's opponents, to gain the highest position in the government. However, following the death of the last rebel Kuti, Halayudha was captured and jailed for his tricks, and then sentenced to death.Wijaya himself died in 1309.
According to tradition, Wijaya's son and successor, Jayanegara was notorious for immorality. One of his sinful acts was his desire on taking his own stepsisters as wives. He was entitled Kala Gemet, or "weak villain". Approximately during Jayanegara's reign, the Italian Friar Odoric of Pordenone visited Majapahit court in Java. In 1328, Jayanegara was murdered by his doctor, Tanca. His stepmother, Gayatri Rajapatni, was supposed to replace him, but Rajapatni retired from court to become a Bhikkhuni. Rajapatni appointed her daughter, Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi, or known in her formal name as Tribhuwannottungadewi Jayawishnuwardhani, as the queen of Majapahit under Rajapatni's auspices. Tribhuwana appointed Gajah Mada as the Prime Minister in 1336. During his inauguration Gajah Mada declared his Sumpah Palapa, revealing his plan to expand Majapahit realm and building an empire. During Tribhuwana’s rule, the Majapahit kingdom grew much larger and became famous in the area. Tribhuwana ruled Majapahit until the death of her mother in 1350. She abdicated the throne in favour of her son, Hayam Wuruk.
Golden age
The graceful Bidadari Majapahit, golden celestial apsara in Majapahit style perfectly describes Majapahit as "the golden age" of the archipelago.
Next to launching naval and military expeditions, the expansion of Majapahit Empire also involved diplomacy and alliance. Hayam Wuruk decided, probably for political reasons, to take princess Citra Rashmi (Pitaloka) of neighboring Sunda Kingdom as his consort.[15] The Sundanese took this proposal as an alliance agreement. In 1357 the Sunda king and his royal family came to Majapahit, to accompany and marry his daughter with Hayam Wuruk. However, Gajah Mada saw this event as an opportunity to demand Sunda's submission to Majapahit overlordship. The skirmish between the Sunda royal family and the Majapahit troops on Bubat square were inevitable. Despite the courageous resistance, the royal family were overwhelmed and decimated. Almost the whole of the Sundanese royal party were killed.Tradition mentioned that the heartbroken Princess committed suicide to defend the honour of her country.The Battle of Bubat or Pasunda Bubat tragedy become the main theme of Kidung Sunda, also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan and Pararaton, however it was never mentioned in Nagarakretagama.
The Nagarakertagama, written in 1365, depicts a sophisticated court with refined taste in art and literature, and a complex system of religious rituals. The poet describes Majapahit as the centre of a huge mandala extending from New Guinea and Maluku to Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. Local traditions in many parts of Indonesia retain accounts in more or less legendary form from 14th-century Majapahit's power. Majapahit's direct administration did not extend beyond east Java and Bali, but challenges to Majapahit's claim to overlordship in outer islands drew forceful responses.
In 1377, a few years after Gajah Mada's death, Majapahit sent a punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang, contributing to the end of the Srivijayan kingdom. Gajah Mada's other renowned general was Adityawarman, known for his conquest in Minangkabau.
The nature of the Majapahit empire and its extent is subject to debate. It may have had limited or entirely notional influence over some of the tributary states in included Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and eastern Indonesia over which of authority was claimed in the Nagarakertagama. Geographical and economic constraints suggest that rather than a regular centralised authority, the outer states were most likely to have been connected mainly by trade connections, which was probably a royal monopoly. It also claimed relationships with Champa, Cambodia, Siam, southern Burma, and Vietnam, and even sent missions to China.
Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighboring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytizers began entering the area.
Decline
The mortuary deified portrait statue of Queen Suhita (reign 1429-1447 CE), discovered at Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, East Java, National Museum of Indonesia.
During the reign of Wikramawardhana, the series of Ming armada naval expeditions led by Zheng He, a Muslim Chinese admiral, arrived in Java for several times spanned the period from 1405 to 1433. By 1430 Zheng He's expeditions has established Muslim Chinese and Arab communities in northern ports of Java such as in Semarang, Demak, Tuban, and Ampel, thus Islam began to gain foothold on Java's northern coast.
Wikramawardhana ruled to 1426 and was succeeded by his daughter Suhita, who ruled from 1426 to 1447. She was the second child of Wikramawardhana by a concubine who was the daughter of Wirabhumi. In 1447, Suhita died and was succeeded by Kertawijaya, her brother. He ruled until 1451. After Kertawijaya died, Bhre Pamotan became a king with formal name Rajasawardhana and ruled at Kahuripan. He died in 1453. A three-year kingless period was possibly the result of a succession crisis. Girisawardhana, son of Kertawijaya, came to power 1456. He died in 1466 and was succeeded by Singhawikramawardhana. In 1468 Prince Kertabhumi rebelled against Singhawikramawardhana promoting himself king of Majapahit. Singhawikramawardhana moved the Kingdom’s capital further inland to Daha (the former capital of Kediri kingdom), effectively split Majapahit under Bhre Kertabumi in Trowulan and Singhawikramawardhana in Daha. Singhawikramawardhana continued his rule until he was succeeded by his son Ranawijaya in 1474.
In western part of the crumbling empire, Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca that in the mid-15th century began to gain effective control of Malacca strait and expands its influence to Sumatra. Several other former Majapahit vassals and colonies began to release themselves from Majapahit domination and suzerainty. But Kertabhumi manage to reverse this event, under his rules he allied Majapahit with Muslim merchant give them trading right on the north coast of Java, with Demak as its center and as the return he ask their loyalty to Majapahit. This policy boost Majapahit treasury and power but weaken Hindu - Buddha as its main religion because Islam spread faster. Hindu - Buddha follower grievance later paved way to Ranawijaya for defeat Kertabumi.
The model of Majapahit ship display in Muzium Negara, Kuala Lumpur.
But in 1498, there are turn event point when Girindrawardhana was coup by his vice regent Udara. After Udara managed to usurp Girindrawardhana, the war between Demak and Daha recede, some source said Raden Patah leave alone Majapahit like his father done before while other said Udara agree became Demak vasal even marry Raden Patah youngest daughter. But this delicate balance end when Udara ask help to Portugal in Malacca and force Demak attack Malacca and Daha under Adipati Yunus to end this corporation.[iv] A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali. The refugees probably fled to avoid Demak retribution for their support for Ranawijaya against Kertabhumi.
With the fall of Daha, crushed by Demak in 1517, the Muslim emerging forces finally defeated the remnants of the Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.Demak under the leadership of Raden (later crowned as Sultan) Patah (Arabic name: Fatah) was acknowledged as the legitimate successor of Majapahit. According to Babad Tanah Jawi and Demak tradition, the source of Patah's legitimacy was because their first sultan, Raden Patah, was the son of Majapahit king Brawijaya V with a Chinese concubine. Another argument supports Demak as the successor of Majapahit; the rising Demak sultanate was easily accepted as the nominal regional ruler, as Demak was the former Majapahit vassal and located near the former Majapahit realm in Eastern Java.
Demak established itself as the regional power and the first Islamic sultanate in Java. After the fall of Majapahit, the Hindu kingdoms in Java only remained in Blambangan on eastern edge and Pajajaran in western part. Gradually Hindu communities began to retreat to mountain ranges in East Java and also to neighboring island of Bali. A small enclave of Hindu communities still remain in Tengger mountain range.
Culture, art and architecture
"Of all the buildings, none lack pillars, bearing fine carvings and
coloured" [Within the wall compounds] " there were elegant pavilions
roofed with aren fibre, like the scene in a painting... The petals of
the katangga were sprinkled over the roofs for they had fallen in
the wind. The roofs were like maidens with flowers arranged in their
hair, delighting those who saw them".
— Description of the Majapahit capital from the Old Javanese epic poem Nagarakertagama.
Culture
"....the King [of Java] has subject to himself seven crowned kings.
[Yet] his island is populous, and is the second best of all islands that
exist.... The king of this island has a palace which is truly
marvellous. For it is very great, the stairs and palace interior were
coated with gold and silver, even the roof were gilded with gold. Now
the Great Khan of China many a time engaged in war with this king; but
this king always vanquished and got the better of him."
— Description of Majapahit by Mattiussi (Friar Odoric of Pordenone).[26]
In his book he mentioned that he visited Java without explaining the exact place he had visited. He said that king of Java ruled over seven other kings (vassals). He also mentioned that in this island was found a lot of clove, cubeb, nutmeg and many other spices. He mentioned that the King of Java had an impressive, grand, and luxurious palace. The stairs and palace interior were coated with gold and silver, and even the roofs were gilded. He also recorded that the kings of the Mongol had repeatedly tried to attack Java, but always ended up in failure and managed to be sent back to the mainland. The Javanese kingdom mentioned in this record is Majapahit, and the time of his visit is between 1318–1330 during the reign of Jayanegara.
In Yingyai Shenglan — a record about Zheng He's expedition (1405-1433) — Ma Huan describes the culture, customs, various social and economic aspects of Chao-Wa (Java) during Majapahit period. Ma Huan visited Java during Zheng He's 4th expedition in the 1413, during the reign of Majapahit king Wikramawardhana. He describes his travel to Majapahit capital, first he arrived to the port of Tu-pan (Tuban) where he saw large numbers of Chinese settlers migrated from Guangdong and Chou Chang. Then he sailed east to thriving new trading town of Ko-erh-hsi (Gresik), Su-pa-erh-ya (Surabaya), and then sailing inland into the river by smaller boat to southwest until reached the river port of Chang-ku (Changgu). Continued travel by land to southwest he arrived in Man-che-po-I (Majapahit), where the king stay. There are about 200 or 300 foreign families resides in this place, with seven or eight leaders to serve the king. The climate is constantly hot, like summer. He describes the king’s costumes; wearing a crown of gold leaves and flowers or sometimes without any headgear; bare-chested without wearing a robe, the bottom parts wears two sash of embroidered silk. Additional silk rope is looped around the waist as a belt, and the belt is inserted with one or two short blades, called pu-la-t'ou (belati or more precisely kris dagger), walking barefoot. When travelling outside, the king riding an elephant or an ox-drawn carriage.
Commoners’ clothing for men is without headgear and women arrange their hair as a bun secured with hairpin. They wears clothing on the upper body and the fabrics on the bottom part. Men from a boy aged three to elders slipped pu-la-t'ou (dagger) in their belt. The dagger, made entirely of steel with intricate motifs smoothly drawn. The handles are made of gold, rhino’s horn or ivory carved with a depiction of human or demon, the carving works are exquisite and skillfully made.
Majapahit people, men and women, favoured their head.If someone was touched on his head, or if there is a misunderstanding or argument when drunk, they will instantly drew their knives and stab each other. When the one being stabbed was wounded and dead, the murderer will flee and hide for three days, then he will not lose his life. But if he was caught during the fight, he will instantly stabbed to death (execution by stabbing). The country of Majapahit knows no caning for major or minor punishment. They tied the guilty men on his hands in the back with rattan rope and paraded them, and then stabbed the offender in the back where there is a floating rib which resulted in instant death. Judicial executions of this kind were frequent.
Population of the country did not have a bed or chair to sit, and to eat they do not use a spoon or chopsticks. Men and women enjoy chewing betel nut mixed with, betel leaves, and white chalk made from ground mussels shells. They eat rice for meal, first they took a scoop of water and soak betel in their mouth, then wash their hands and sit down to make a circle; getting a plate of rice soaked in butter (probably coconut milk) and gravy, and eat using hands to lift the rice and put it in their mouth. When receiving guests, they will offer the guests, not the tea, but with betel nut.
The population consisted of Muslim merchants from the west (Arab and Muslim Indians, but mostly those from Muslim states in Sumatra), Chinese (claimed to be descendants of Tang dynasty), and unrefined locals. The king held annual jousting tournaments. About the marriage rituals; the groom pays a visit to the house of the bride's family, the marriage union is consummated. Three days later, the groom escorts his bride back to his home, where the man’s family beat drums and brass gongs, blowing pipes made from coconut shells (senterewe), beating a drum made from bamboo tubes (probably a kind of bamboo gamelan or kolintang), and light fireworks. Escorted in front, behind, and around by men holding short blades and shields. While the bride is a matted-hair woman, with uncovered body and barefooted. She wraps herself in embroidered silk, wears a necklace around her neck adorned with gold beads, and bracelets on her wrist with ornaments of gold, silver and other precious ornaments. Family, friends and neighbors decorate a decorative boat with betel leaf, areca nut, reeds and flowers were sewn, and arrange a party to welcome the couple on such a festive occasion. When the groom arrives home, the gong and drum are sounded, they will drink wine (possibly arack or tuak) and play music. After a few days the festivities end.
About the burial rituals, the dead body was left on beach or empty land to be devoured by dogs (for lower-class), cremated, or committed into the waters (Javanese:larung). The upper-class performed suttee, a ritual suicide by widowed wives, concubines or female servants, through self immolation by throwing themselves into flaming cremation fire.
For the writing, they had known the alphabet using So-li (Chola - Coromandel/Southern India) letters. There is no paper or pen, they use Chiao-chang (kajang) or palm leaf (lontar), written by scraping it with a sharp knife. They also have a developed language system and grammar. The way the people talk in this country is very beautiful and soft.
In this record, Ma Huan also describes a musical troupes traveling during full moon nights. Numbers of people holding shoulders creating an unbroken line while singing and chanting in unison, while the families whose houses being visited would give them copper coins or gifts. He also describes a class of artisans that draws various images on paper and give a theatrical performance. The narrator tells the story of legends, tales and romance drawn upon a screen of rolled paper.This kind of performance is identified as wayang bébér, an art of story-telling that has survived for many centuries in Java.
Art
Further information: Majapahit Terracotta
Bas reliefs of Tegowangi temple, dated from Majapahit period, demonstrate the East Javanese style.
Clay pottery and brick masonry are popular feature in Majapahit art and architecture. The Majapahit Terracotta art also flourished in this period. Significant numbers of terracotta artifacts were discovered in Trowulan. The artifacts ranges from human and animal figurines, jars, vessels, water containers, piggy banks, bas reliefs, architectural ornaments, roof pinnacles, floor tiles, to pipes and roof tiles. One of the most interesting findings is Majapahit piggy bank. Several boar-shaped piggy banks has been discovered in Trowulan. It is probably the origin of Javanese-Indonesian word to refer for saving or money container. The word celengan in Javanese and Indonesian means both "savings" and "piggy bank". It was derived from the word celeng which means "wild boar", the suffix "-an" was added to denote its likeness. One important specimen is stored in National Museum of Indonesia, it has been reconstructed since this large piggy bank has been found broken to pieces. Terracotta money boxes also has been found in different shapes, such as tubular or boxes, with slits to slip coins. Another important terracotta artifact is the head figurine of a man popularly thought to be the depiction of Gajah Mada, although it is not certain about who was depicted in these figurines.
Architecture
Further information: Candi of Indonesia
Jabung temple near Paiton, Probolinggo, East Java, dated from Majapahit period.
The houses of commoners had thatched roofs (nipa palm leaves). Every family has a storage shed made of bricks, about 3 or 4 Ch'ih (48.9 inches or 124 centimeters above the ground, where they kept the family property, and they lived on top of this building, to sit and sleep.
The Majapahit temple architecture follows the east Javanese styles, in contrast of earlier central Javanese style. This east Javanese temple style is also dated back from Kediri period circa 11th century. The shapes of Majapahit temples are tends to be slender and tall, with roof constructed from multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure curved upward smoothly creating the perspective illussion that the temple is perceived taller than its actual height. The pinnacle of the temples are usually cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples). Although some of temples dated from Majapahit period used andesite or sandstone, the red bricks is also a popular construction material.
Although brick had been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it.Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo, and Surawana temple near Kediri. Some of the temples are dated from earlier period but renovated and expanded during Majapahit era, such as Penataran, the largest temple in East Java dated back to Kediri era. This temple was identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across East Java.
Some of typical architectural style are believed to be developed during Majapahit era; such as tall and slender roofed red brick gate commonly called as kori agung or paduraksa, and also split gate of candi bentar. The large split gate of Wringin Lawang located at Jatipasar, Trowulan, Mojokerto, East Java, is one of the oldest and the largest surviving candi bentar dated from Majapahit era. The candi bentar took shape of typical Majapahit temple structure—consists of three parts; foot, body and tall roof—evenly split into two mirroring structures to make a passage in the center for people to walk through. This type of split gate has no doors and provides no real defensive purpose but narrowing the passage. It was probably only serve the ceremonial and aesthetic purpose, to create the sense of grandeur, before entering the next compound through tall roof paduraksa gate with enclosed door. The example of kori agung or paduraksa style gate is the elegant Bajang Ratu gate richly decorated with Kala demon, cyclops and also the bas-relief telling the story of Sri Tanjung. Those typical Majapahit architectural style has deeply influenced the Javanese and Balinese architecture of later period.
In later period near the fall of Majapahit, the art and architecture of Majapahit witnessed the revival of indigenous native Austronesian megalithic architectural elements, such as Sukuh and Cetho temples on western slopes of Mount Lawu. Unlike previous Majapahit temples that demonstrate typical Hindu architecture of high-rise towering structure, the shape of these temples are step pyramid, quite similar to Mesoamerican pyramids. The stepped pyramid structure called Punden Berundak (stepped mounds) is a common megalithic structure during Indonesian prehistoric era before the adoption of Hindu-Buddhist culture.
Economy
Majapahit Terracotta Piggy Bank, 14th–15th century Trowulan, East Java. (Collection of National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta)
For the fruits, there are all kinds of bananas, coconut, sugarcane, pomegranate, lotus, mang-chi-shi (mangosteen), watermelon and lang Ch'a (langsat or lanzones). Mang-chi-shi – is something like a pomegranate, peel it like an orange, it has four lumps of white flesh, sweet and sour taste and very delicious. Lang-ch’a is a fruit similar to Loquat, but larger, contained three blocky white flesh with sweet and sour taste. Sugarcane has white stems, large and coarse, with roots reaching 3 chang (30 feet 7 inches). In addition, all types of squash and vegetables are there, just a shortage of peach, plum and leek.
Taxes and fines were paid in cash. Javanese economy had been partly monetised since the late 8th century, using gold and silver coins. Previously, the 9th century Wonoboyo hoard discovered in Central Java shows that ancient Javan gold coins were seed-shaped, similar to corn, while the silver coins were similar to buttons. In about the year 1300, in the reign of Majapahit's first king, an important change took place: the indigenous coinage was completely replaced by imported Chinese copper cash. About 10,388 ancient Chinese coins weighing about 40 kg were even unearthed from the backyard of a local commoner in Sidoarjo in November 2008. Indonesian Ancient Relics Conservation Bureau (BP3) of East Java verified that those coins dated as early as Majapahit era.[The reason for using foreign currency is not given in any source, but most scholars assume it was due to the increasing complexity of Javanese economy and a desire for a currency system that used much smaller denominations suitable for use in everyday market transactions. This was a role for which gold and silver are not well suited. These kepeng Chinese coins were thin rounded copper coins with a square hole in the center of it. The hole was meant to tie together the money in a string of coins. These small changes—the imported Chinese copper coins—enabled Majapahit further invention, a method of savings by using a slitted earthenware coin containers. These are commonly found in Majapahit ruins, the slit is the small opening to put the coins in. The most popular shape is boar-shaped celengan (piggy bank).
Some idea of scale of the internal economy can be gathered from scattered data in inscriptions. The Canggu inscriptions dated 1358 mentions 78 ferry crossings in the country (mandala Java). Majapahit inscriptions mention a large number of occupational specialities, ranging from gold and silver smiths to drink vendors and butchers. Although many of these occupations had existed in earlier times, the proportion of the population earning an income from non-agrarian pursuits seems to have become even greater during the Majapahit era.
The great prosperity of Majapahit was probably due to two factors. Firstly, the northeast lowlands of Java were suitable for rice cultivation, and during Majapahit's prime numerous irrigation projects were undertaken, some with government assistance. Secondly, Majapahit's ports on the north coast were probably significant stations along the route to obtain the spices of Maluku, and as the spices passed through Java they would have provided an important source of income for Majapahit.
The Nagarakertagama states that the fame of the ruler of Wilwatikta (a synonym for Majapahit) attracted foreign merchants from far and wide, including Indians, Khmers, Siames, and Chinese among others. While in later period, Yingyai Shenglan mentioned that large numbers of Chinese traders and Muslim merchants from west (from Arab and India, but mostly from Muslim states in Sumatra and Malay peninsula) are settling in Majapahit port cities, such as Tuban, Gresik and Hujung Galuh (Surabaya). A special tax was levied against some foreigners, possibly those who had taken up semi-permanent residence in Java and conducted some type of enterprise other than foreign trade. The Majapahit Empire had trading links with Chinese Ming dynasty, Annam and Champa in today Vietnam, Cambodia, Siamese Ayutthayan, Burmese Martaban and the south Indian Vijayanagara Empire.
Administration
Pair of door guardians from a temple, Eastern Java, 14th century (Museum of Asian Art, San Francisco)
The statue of Parvati as mortuary deified portrayal of Tribhuwanottunggadewi, queen of Majapahit, mother of Hayam Wuruk.
Bureaucracy officials
During his daily administration, the king is assisted by bureaucratic state officials that also included the close relatives of the kings that hold certain esteemed titles. The royal order or edict usually transmitted from the king to the high officials well to their subordinates. The officials in Majapahit courts are:-
- Rakryan Mahamantri Katrini, usually reserved for the king's heir
- Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran, the board of ministers that conduct the daily administration
- Dharmmadhyaksa, the officials of laws, state laws as well as religious laws
- Dharmma-upapatti, the officials concerning religious affairs
Territorial division
The elegant 16.5 metres tall Bajang Ratu gate, at Trowulan, echoed the grandeur of Majapahit.
-
- Bhumi: the kingdom, ruled by the king
- Nagara: the province, ruled by the rajya (governor), or natha (lord), or bhre (prince or duke)
- Watek: the regency, administered by wiyasa,
- Kuwu: the district, administered by lurah,
- Wanua: the village, administered by thani,
- Kabuyutan: the hamlet or sanctuary place.
During the reign of Hayam Wuruk (1350– 1389) there were 12 provinces of Majapahit, administered by king's close relatives:
| Provinces | Titles | Rulers | Relation to the King |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kahuripan (or Janggala, today Sidoarjo) | Bhre Kahuripan | Tribhuwanatunggadewi | queen mother |
| Daha (former capital of Kediri) | Bhre Daha | Rajadewi Maharajasa | aunt and also mother-in-law |
| Tumapel (former capital of Singhasari) | Bhre Tumapel | Kertawardhana | father |
| Wengker (today Ponorogo) | Bhre Wengker | Wijayarajasa | uncle and also father-in-law |
| Matahun (today Bojonegoro) | Bhre Matahun | Rajasawardhana | husband of the duchess of Lasem, king's cousin |
| Wirabhumi (Blambangan) | Bhre Wirabhumi | Bhre Wirabhumi | son |
| Paguhan | Bhre Paguhan | Singhawardhana | brother in-law |
| Kabalan | Bhre Kabalan | Kusumawardhani | daughter |
| Pawanuan | Bhre Pawanuan | Surawardhani | niece |
| Lasem (a coastal town in Central Java) | Bhre Lasem | Rajasaduhita Indudewi | cousin |
| Pajang (today Surakarta) | Bhre Pajang | Rajasaduhita Iswari | sister |
| Mataram (today Yogyakarta) | Bhre Mataram | Wikramawardhana | nephew |
- Negara Agung, or the Grand State, the core kingdom. The traditional or initial area of Majapahit during its formation before entering the imperial phase. This includes the capital city and the surrounding areas where the king effectively exercises his government. This area covered the eastern half of Java, with all its provinces ruled by the Bhres (dukes), the king's close relatives.
- Mancanegara, areas surrounding Negara Agung. These areas are directly influenced by Javanese culture, and obliged to pay annual tributes. However, these areas usually possess their own native rulers or kings, that might foster alliance or intermarried with the Majapahit royal family. Majapahit stationed their officials and officers in these places and regulate their foreign trade activities and collect taxes, yet they enjoyed substantial internal autonomy. This includes the rest of Java island, Madura, Bali, as well as Dharmasraya, Pagaruyung, Lampung and Palembang in Sumatra.
- Nusantara, areas which do not reflect Javanese culture, but are included as colonies and they had to pay annual tribute. They enjoyed substantial autonomy and internal freedom, and Majapahit did not necessarily station their officials or military officers here; however, any challenges on Majapahit oversight might draw severe response. These areas such as the vassal kingdoms and colonies in Maluku, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, Borneo, and Malay peninsula.
- Mitreka Satata, literally means "partners with common order". It refer to independent foreign states that is considered as Majapahit's equals, not the subject of Majapahit powers. According to Nagarakretagama canto 15, the foreign states are Syangkayodhyapura (Ayutthaya of Siam), Dharmmanagari (Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom) in southern Thailand, Rajapura (Ratburi) and Singhanagari (Singora or modern Songkla), Marutma (Martaban or Mottama, modern Southern Myanmar), Champa (today Southern Vietnam), Kamboja (Cambodia), and Yawana (Annam).[31][32] Mitreka Satata can be considered as Majapahit's allies, since other foreign kingdoms in China and India was not included in this category, although Majapahit known has conducted foreign relations with these nations.
In later period, Majapahit's hold on its overseas possessions began to wane. According to Wingun Pitu inscription (dated 1447) it was mentioned that Majapahit consist of 14 provinces, that administrated by the ruler titled Bhre.[34] The provinces or vassal areas are:
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Legacy
Pura Maospahit ("Majapahit Temple") in Denpasar, Bali, demonstrate the typical Majapahit red brick architecture.
The Majapahit style minaret of Kudus Mosque.
Numbers of local legends and folklores in the region had mentioned about the Majapahit kingdom. Most of them mentioned about the incoming Javanese forces to their land, which was probably a local testament of the empire's expansive nature that once dominating the archipelago. The legend of Minangkabau mentioned an invading foreign prince — associated with Javanese Majapahit kingdom — being defeated in a buffalo fight. Other than Javanese sources, some regional legends mentioning Majapahit kingdom or its general Gajah Mada, also can be found; from Aceh, Minangkabau, Palembang, Malay Peninsula, Sunda, Brunei, Bali to Sumbawa.
Several Javanese legends were originated or become popular during Majapahit period. The Panji cycles, the tale of Sri Tanjung, and the epic of Damarwulan, are popular tales in Javanese and Balinese literatures. The tales of Panji was dated from older period during Kediri kingdom, while the tale of Sri Tanjung and the epic of Damarwulan took place during Majapahit period. These tales remained a popular theme in Javanese culture of later period during Mataram Sultanate, and often became the source of inspiration for wayang shadow puppet performance, ketoprak and topeng dance drama.
Majapahit had a momentous and lasting influence on Indonesian architecture. The descriptions of the architecture of the capital's pavilions (pendopo) in the Nagarakertagama evoke the Javanese Kraton also the Balinese temples and palace compounds of today. The Majapahit architectural style that often employs terracotta and red brick heavily influenced the architecture of Java and Bali in the later period. The Majapahit style candi bentar split gate, the kori or paduraksa towering red brick gate, and also pendopo pavilion have become ubiquitous in Javanese and Balinese architectural features, as seen in Menara Kudus Mosque, Keraton Kasepuhan and Sunyaragi park in Cirebon, Mataram Sultanate royal cemetery in Kota Gede, Yogyakarta, and various palaces and temples in Bali.
Bas relief from Candi Penataran describes the Javanese-style pendopo pavilion, commonly found across Java and Bali.
The red brick Candi Bentar split gate of Keraton Kasepuhan in Cirebon reveal Majapahit architectural influences.
In weaponry, the Majapahit expansion is believed to be responsible for the widespread use of the keris dagger in Southeast Asia; from Java, Bali, Sumatra, Malaysia, Brunei, Southern Thailand, to the Philippines. Although it has been suggested that the keris, and native daggers similar to it, predate Majapahit, nevertheless the empire expansion contributed to its popularity and diffussion in the region around the year 1492.
For Indonesians in later centuries, Majapahit became a symbol of past greatness. The Islamic sultanates of Demak, Pajang, and Mataram sought to establish their legitimacy in relation to the Majapahit. The Demak claimed a line of succession through Kertabumi, as its founder Raden Patah, in court chronicles was said to be the son of Kertabumi with Putri Cina, a Chinese princess, who had been sent away before her son was born. Sultan Agung's conquest of Wirasaba (present day Mojoagung) in 1615—during that time just a small town without significant strategic and economic value—led by the sultan himself, may probably have had such symbolic importance as it was the location of the former Majapahit capital. Central Javanese palaces have traditions and genealogy that attempt to prove links back to the Majapahit royal lines—usually in the form of a grave as a vital link in Java — where legitimacy is enhanced by such a connection. Bali in particular was heavily influenced by Majapahit and the Balinese consider themselves to be the true heirs of the kingdom.
The high reliefs of Gajah Mada and Majapahit history depicted in Monas, has become the source of Indonesian national pride of past greatness.
The Indonesian coat of arms, Garuda Pancasila, also derives from Javanese Hindu elements. The statue and relief of Garuda have been found in many temples in Java such as Prambanan from the ancient Mataram era, and the Panataran as well as the Sukuh temple dated from the Majapahit era. The notable statue of Garuda is the statue of the king Airlangga depicted as Vishnu riding Garuda.
In its propaganda from the 1920s, the Communist Party of Indonesia presented its vision of a classless society as a reincarnation of a romanticized Majapahit. It was invoked by Sukarno for nation building and by the New Order as an expression of state expansion and consolidation.Like Majapahit, the modern state of Indonesia covers vast territory and is politically centred on Java.
Palapa, the series of communication satellites owned by Telkom, an Indonesian telecommunication company, was named after Sumpah Palapa, the famous oath taken by Gajah Mada, who swore that he would not taste any spice as long as he had not succeeded in unifying Nusantara (Indonesian archipelago). This ancient oath of unification signifies the Palapa satellite as the modern means to unify the Indonesian archipelago by way of telecommunication. The name was chosen by president Suharto, and the program was started in February 1975.
During the last half year of 2008, the Indonesian government sponsored a massive exploration on the site that is believed to be the place where the palace of Majapahit once stood. Jero Wacik, the Indonesian Minister of Culture and Tourism stated that the Majapahit Park would be built on the site and completed as early as 2009, in order to prevent further damage caused by home-made brick industries that developed in the surrounding area.Nevertheless, the project leaves a huge attention to some historians, since constructing the park's foundation in Segaran site located in south side of Trowulan Museum will inevitably damage the site itself. Ancient bricks which are historically valuable were found scattered on the site. The government then argued that the method they were applying were less destructive since digging method were used instead of drilling.
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